>R 87 

.G52 

1893 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 

000050b0527 



QUTLINE gTUDIES 

IN 

JjTERATURE 



Prof. J. H. Gilmore, 

University of Rochester. 



SCRANTOM, WETMORE & CO., 

Rochester, N. Y, 



Copyrighted 1891, by J . H. Gilmore, Rochester, N. Y. 



Outline Studies 



IN 



English and American Literature, 



BY 

Prof. J. H. Gilmore, 

Author of 4 'The English Language and its Early Literature," 
" The Chautauqua Textbook of English 
Literature," etc., etc. 



SECOND EDITION — REVISED AND ENLARGED. 



Z 0f: ^.-.-1^ 



Rochester, N. Y. 



SCRANTOM, WETMORE & Co. 
1893. 



k 





Press of Democrat and Chronicle, 
Rochester, N, Y. 



LC Control Number 




tmp96 031501 



I 

NOTE. 


This little volume is made up of the analyses of lectures given 
to the students of the University of Rochester, together with 
references to those authorities which might be found useful in 
such subsequent study as these lectures were designed to stimu- 
late and direct. 

Many of these lectures have been delivered before other insti- 
tutions of learning, and various literary societies — among which 
he author may name the School of Library Economy at Columbia 
College ; Miss Mittelberger's School at Cleveland, Ohio ; The 
Chautauqua College of Liberal Arts and the Granger Place School 
at Canandaigua, N. Y.; literary clubs in Albion, Batavia, Medina 
and Tarrytown ; the Young Men's Christian Association of Buffalo. 

Prof. Gilmore is prepared to deliver one or more of the lectures 
which are here printed in outline, at such times and places as will 
not interfere with his duties in connection with the University of 
Rochester ; and invites correspondence on that subject. The 
lectures, it should be understood, are, in purpose and character, 
strictly in the line of "University Extension'' work. 
Address : 

PROF. J. H. GILMORE, 

Rochester, N. Y. 



THE ORIGIN AND AFFINITIES OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

Introduction : The interest and importance of the theme. 
Three great ethnic and linguistic families to be recognized — the 
Semitic, Indo-European and Allophylian. 

The third of these a mere omnium gatherum. Within the first 
two, we note : 

1. Similarity of roots. E. G. Sansk. matri, Lat. mater \ Eng. 
mother. 

2. Similarity of inflections. E. G. Sansk. bhr&taras, Lat. fratres, 
Eng. brothers. 

3. Similarity of constructions . 

I Semitic " derived from Sem or Shem. Typified by the 
Hebrew. Characterized by triliteral roots and great simplicity of 
construction. Affects English slightly, through travel, commerce, 
and especially the Hebrew Scriptures. 

" Allophylian " (or "Turanian") affects English even less; yet 
to an appreciable extent. See Morris's "Outlines of English 
Accidence," p. 32 sq. 

English language distinctively "Indo-European." The similari- 
ties noted above are largely due to descent of Indo-European lan- 
guages from a common language (the "Aryan") spoken, in pre- 
historic times, on the head-waters of the Indus. Successive waves 
of migration planted descendants of this primitive stock in Europe. 



CLASSIFICATION OF INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. 



Asiatic 



European < 



1. Kymric 



2. 



III. Keltic ^ 



IV. 
V. 



VI. Teutonic < 



Cornish. 
Bas-Breton. 
Erse ; 
Gaelic. 
Manx. 



I. Indic — Sanskrit of Vedas, Pali, Bengali. 
II. lRANic--Zend-Avesta, Old Persian. 

( (1.) Welsh. 

(2.) 
((3.) 
((1.) 

Gadhelic \ (2.) 

((3.) 

Hellenic— Various dialects of Greece. 
Italic — Latin, etc., " Romanic languages." 

f(i.) Maeso-Gothic. 
(2.) Low German, or 
1. Germanic < Saxon. 

(3.) Frisic. 
^(4.) High German, 
f (1.) Icelandic. 
(2.) Swedish. 
(3.) Danish, in. 
^eluding Norse. 

VII. Lithuanic— Courland, Livonia, Esthonia. 

VIII. Sclavonic — K-ussia, Danubian principalities. 

5 



2. Scandinavian 



At the dawn of authentic history, some form of the Keltic 
language was spoken throughout Britain. The Romans con- 
quered southern Britain in 84 A. D. (cf. the Agricola of Tacitus), 
and held it until 412; but made little permanent impression on 
the language. " Latin of the First Period." 

The Saxons began to come in about 449, and Saxon dialects 
gradually supplanted the Keltic. No Keltic constructions in 
modern English, and comparatively few Keltic words introduced 
at this time. 

The Anglo-Saxon language, which supplanted the Keltic, was 
made up of several Low German dialects as nearly akin to each 
other as the dialects of ancient Greece. It is a mistake to regard 
the Saxon settlement as made by only three tribes (Angles, Saxons 
and Jutes); or to give excessive prominence to the Angles. The 
prominent part which the Frisians played in this settlement. See 
Barnes's " Early England and the Saxon English." 

From the blending of these Low German dialects was devel- 
oped the Anglo-Saxon language, which was the basis of our 
modern English. From it we derive : 

1. Nearly all our inflectional forms. 

2. Most of our constructions, and especially our common idioms. 

3. A very large part, — and that the strongest, tenderest and 
most effective, — of our vocabulary. See " Edinburgh Review M 
for April, 1859. 

The Christianization of Anglo-Saxon England, — beginning 596 
A. D., — introduced the Latin language (" Latin of the Second 
Period "), and laid the foundation for a Latin literature. 

The linguistic influence of the Danish conquest of Britain, 
beginning circ. 787 and culminating 1016 A. D. 

The Norman-French conquest, 1066 A. D., introduced, — beside 
the Anglo-Saxon, — a language whose basis was Low Latin (" Latin 
of the Third Period "). For some time three languages coexisted 
in Britain : the Latin, the Norman-French and the Anglo-Saxon. 

Gradual amalgamation of the Anglo-Saxon and the Norman- 
French. Tendencies of this amalgamation : 

1. To make our English syntax positional rather than inflectional. 

2. Slightly to modify constructions. 

3. To enlarge and enrich our vocabulary by : 

(1) Supplying abstract terms. 

(2) Facilitating the composition and derivation of words. 

7 



(3) Furnishing synonymous expressions. 

(4) Giving dignity and grace to the homely Anglo-Saxon. 
The Norman conquest was needed to vitalize the Anglo-Saxon 

race. The Anglo-Saxon language equally needed a transfusion 
of vitality, and, as the result, has an ancestry unparalleled in 
linguistic history. 

Consult, on this topic, Prof. Gilmore's " English Language and 
its Early Literature;" Clark's " Students' Handbook of Compara- 
tive Grammar;" Morris's " Outlines of English Accidence;" 
Latham's "Ethnology of the ^ British Islands;" Rhys's "Celtic 
Britain ;" Garnett's "Philological Essays ;" Roemer's "Origin of 
the English People and Language;" Brachet's "Historical 
Grammar of the French Tongue ;" Oliphant's " Old and Middle 
English ;" Nicholas's " Pedigree of the English People ;" 
Marsh's "Origin and History of the English Language;" 
Freeman's "Old English History," and "Short History of the 
Norman Conquest ;" Pearson's " England During the Early 
and Middle Ages ;" McClear's " Conversion of the English ;" 
Newell's "Ancient British Church;" Green's "Making of Eng- 
land;" Bulwer's "Harold;" Kingsley's "Hereward the Wake;" 
Scott's "Ivanhoe;" Church's "Story of Early Britain." 

EARLY LITERATURES OF BRITAIN. 

I. Keltic Literature (especially of Wales). 5th and 6th 
centuries. 

TJye Triads. 

The Bards — Aneurin, Taliesin, Merlin, Llywarch Hen. 
The M vHnogion — translated by Lady Charlotte Guest. 
Favorite theme : King Arthur and the Knights of the Round 
Table. 

II. Latin Literature. From 596 A. D. to the time of Milton. 
Leading names in early times : 

The Venerable Bede (d. 735), " Ecclesiastical History of Britain." 
Anselm, Abp. of Canterbury (d. 1109), " Cur Deus Ho?no?" 

Walter Map (d. 12 10), the first English litterateur. 
Roger Bacon (d. 1292), the first English physicist. 

III. Anglo-Saxon Literature. 660-1066 A. D. 

Somewhat copious, but of slight intrinsic value and slight form- 
ative influence. Our alliterative tendencies and accentual versi- 
fication may be traced to this source. Principal authors or works: 

Cozdmon (latter half of 7th century). Antetype of Milton. 
Beowulf (7th century?). Great Low German Epic. See Gar- 
nett's translation. 

9 



The Saxon Chronicle. Series of Monkish annals. 
Alfred (b. 849, d. 901). Judicious patron of letters. Translated 
Bede, Orosius, Boethius. The first Englishman. 

IV. Semi-Saxon Literature. 1066-1250 A. D. 

Of no especial literary significance; but of great interest to stu- 
dents of language. Principal works: 

The Brut of Layamon — a versified chronicle. 

The Ormulum — a metrical paraphrase of Scripture. 

V. Early English Literature. 1250-1350 A. D. 

Mostly formed after Norman-French models and of slight 
interest and value. Worthy of note : 

The Owl and the Nightingale — "a sweet British pastoral." 

The Lay of Havelok — an Anglo-Danish romance. 

Robert of Gloucester s Chronicle — The first English history. 

Consult, on this topic, Marsh's " Origin and History of the Eng- 
lish Language;" Matthew Arnold's " Celtic Literature;" Corson's 
" Handbook of Anglo-Saxon and early English;" Morris's " Speci- 
mens of Early English;" Brother Azarias's "Development of 
English Literature;" Morley's "Writers Before Chaucer" and 
"English Writers;" Ten Brink's "Old English Literature;" 
Hughes's " Life of Alfred ;" Church's " Life of Anselm ;" Bul- 
finch's "Age of Chivalry and Legends of King Arthur ;" Rhys's 
"Studies in the Arthurian Legend ;" Early English Text Society's 
" Havelok." 

GENERAL SURVEY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. 

I. The Formative Period. From 1350 to 1474; or from the 
time when Chaucer and his contemporaries made the East Mid- 
land dialect the literary language of England, to the time when 
William Caxton set up the first English printing-press. Litera- 
ture neither Anglo-Saxon nor Norman-French, but English; and 
indissolubly connected with the literature of our own day. Lead- 
ing authors or works : 

In Prose — Sir John Mandeville, John Wiclif. 
In Poetry— Langlande (Piers Plowman), John Gower, Geoffrey 
Chaucer. 

II. The Period of the Renaissance (Taine); or, The 
Period of Italian Influence (Morley). From 1474 to 1660; 
or from the introduction of printing to the development of French 
influence attendant on the restoration of the Stuarts. This period 
may be subdivided into three : 

11 



1. From 1474 to 1558; or, from the introduction of printing to 
the period of political and religious stability ushered in by the 
reign of Elizabeth. This period covers the anticipatory move- 
ments of a new literary life, generated by the Revival of Learn- 
ing in Europe. Typical authors are : 

Tyndale, representing the religious renaissance. 
Surrey ', representing the secular renaissance. 

2. From 1558 to 1625; or, from the accession of Elizabeth to 
the death of James I. — being the great creative period of English 
literature. Typical authors are : 

In Poetry ', Spenser — " The Faery Queene." 
In the Drama, Shakspere — " Julius Caesar," "As You Like It," 
" Hamlet," " King Henry VIII." 
In Prose, Bacon — " Essays," " Advancement of Learning." 

3. From 1625 to 1660; or, from the death of James I. to the 
restoration of the Stuarts. The typical author of the period (in 
prose and poetry) is Milton. 

III. The Classic AGE(Taine); or, The Period of French 
Influence (Morley). From 1660 to 1789 ; or from the restoration 
to the French revolution. Typical authors are : 

In Poetry, Dry den and Pope. 

In Prose, Addison, Fielding and Johnson. 

IV. The Period of Modern Life (Taine); or, The Period 
of English Popular Influence (Morley). From 1789, — when 
the English mind was emancipated from the fetters of French 
classicism, — to the present day. Typical authors are : 

In Poetry, Scott, Byron and Wordsworth. 
In Prose, Dickens, Macaulay and Tyndall. 

Authorities: Morley's "First Sketch of English Literature;" 
Macmillan's " History of English Literature;" Taine's " English 
Literature;" Green's "Short History of the English People;" 
Brooke's " Primer of English Literature;" the Clarendon Press 
editions of Piers Plowman, Chaucer, Spenser, Bacon, Shakspere, 
etc. 

THE CONTEMPORARIES OF CHAUCER. 

I. In Prose: Sir John Mandeville. Travels (1356), in Latin, 
French and English. First English prose author. 

John Wiclif (b. 1324, d. 1384.) Professor of Theology at Oxford. 
Translation of New Testament from the Latin. 



13 



2. In Poetry : William Langlande (b. circ. 1332). " Piers Plow- 
man," or " Visio Wilhehni de Petro Plowman et Visio ejusdem de 
Do-Wely Do-Bet et Do-Best.'' A homely but vigorous satire — 
largely allegorical — on the abuses of the time. Three drafts of 
poem : 

A Text (1362). 2567 lines. Most spirited and vigorous form. 
B Text (1377). Considerable additions, evincing marked orig- 
inality. 

C Text (1380). Diffuse and evincing a tendency to Theological 
subtleties. 

Poem alliterative and unrhymed. Leading characteristics : (a) 
Genuine poetic feeling, (b) Quaint and quiet humor, (c) Inci- 
dental sketches of every-day life, (d) Political and religious 
opinions in advance of his age . (e) Enlightened liberality. 

Lawrence Minot, author of ten poems celebrating the exploits 
of Edward III. 

John Gower (d. 1408). " Speculum Meditantis" (Fr.); " Vox 
Clamantis" (Lat.); " Confessio Amantis" (Eng). 

Consult, on this topic, " The Voyages and Travels of Sir John 
Mandeville " (Cassell's National Library — price 10 cents); the 
Clarendon Press edition of "Piers Plowman;" Morris's "Speci- 
mens of Early English ;" Anderson's Annals of the English 
Bible ;" Mrs. Conant's " Translators of the Bible ;" Westcott's 
"History of the English Bible;" Lowell's My Study Windows," 
pp. 258, 264 (on Gower). 



15 



GEOFFREY CHAUCER. 



A. His Life. Born 1328 (? about 1340). Son of John Chaucer, 
a wealthy London vintner. Place of education not certainly 
known ; but thoroughly well educated. In 1357, a page in the 
family of Prince Lionel. In 1359-60, a soldier and a prisoner of 
war in France. In 1367, a courtier. Receives a pension of 20 
marks from Edward III. Not, however, to encourage his poetic 
tastes. Chauce** wrote nothing as Poet Laureate ; and never filled 
the office. Married — not later than 1366 — Philippa, daughter c? 
Sir Paon de Roet and sister of Lady Katherine Swynford, subse- 
quently Duchess of Lancaster. Influence of this marriage on his 
fortunes. Mr. Furnivall's theory of Chaucer's marriage. Sent 
abroad as ambassador, on important business, ten times between 
1370 and 1380- Appointed Comptroller of the Customs for the 
port of London, June 8, 1374 Royal favor continued under 
Richard II. (i378) t Additional custom-house appointment, May 
8, 1382. Not a prisoner in the tower ; but Knight of the Shire for 
Kent in the Parliament of 1386. Removed from office the same year. 
Chaucer old, lonely and poor, 1386-89. Special marks of royal 
favor shown him on the accession of Henry IV. (son of the Duke 
of Lancaster), 1399. He died Oct. 25, 1400, and was buried in 
Westminster Abbey. 

B, His Works. Character of his period — political and social 
— literary. Chaucer marks a new era in English literature. First 
and still the best of English descriptive poets. His favorite metre 
adopted by Shakspere and Milton. He stood first but he did not 
stand alone. 

Chaucer a man of affairs, as well as a poet. Still, a voluminous 
writer. Three periods to be recognized : — 

I. Period of French Influence, previous to his Italian journey 
in 1373. Works : "A. B. C." (a free translation from De Guilville) , 
" Compleynte to Pit3 " Dethe of Blaunche." 

II. Period of Italian Influence, 1 374-1 384. " Parlament of 
Foules," after the "Teseide" of Boccaccio ; "Hous of Fame." 

III. Period of English Influence, 1384-1400. " Legende of Good 
Women"; "Compleynte to Venus"; " Astrolabie" ; "Canterbury 
Tales." 

His originality. Plan of his great work. Personal character- 
istics of Chaucer. Mental chaiacteristics, as gleaned from his 
poems: 1. Childlike simplicity of thought and diction. 2. Intense 
love of nature. 3. Keen insight into character — see Alexander 

17 



Smith's Dream Thorpe. 4. Ready sympathy. 5. Humor and 
pathos. 6. Rare skill in the details of the poetic art. His versi- 
fication. Chaucer a descriptive rather than a dramatic poet. 
Estimates of De Quincey, Emerson, Coleridge. His services to 
our language similar to those of Dante to the Italian. 

Consult the Clarendon Press editions of Chaucer; "Chaucer's 
England"; Lowell's "My Study Windows"; Alexander Smith's 
" Dream Thorpe"; Saunders's" Canterbury Tales"; Mrs. Haweis's 
"Chaucer for Children"; Life of Chaucer in the " English Men of 
Letters" series, 

FROM CHAUCER TO SPENSER. 

( 1 400-1 600). 

The period immediately succeeding Chaucer (1400— 1474), a 
period of literary stagnation. Causes : War with France ; Wars 
of the Roses ; Decline of Popular Liberty ; Religious Controversy. 
England shared this non-productive condition, however, with the 
continent No literature worth the attention of the general 
student save some of the old ballads — e. g. " Chevy Chase/' 

The capture of Constantinople by the Turks, in 1453, resulted 
in a revival of learning throughout Europe, which was marked, so 
far as England was concerned, by the setting up of the first print- 
ing press in 1474 (?I476). 

Wm. Caxton, the first English printer. The first book printed 
in England: "The Dictes and Sayings of Philosophers," (1476). 
Caxton published 64 volumes, of which the most noteworthy was 
oir Thos. Malory's " Byrth, Lif and Actes of Kyng Arthur " (1485). 

Two phases of the English renaissance : — 

1. The Religious Renaissance, typified by William Tyndale, 
who published the first translation of the New Testament from 
the original Greek, in 1525. Tyndale's influence on subsequent 
versions, great. He made our English Bible a Bible for the 
people. Principal versions in the line of succession ; " Miles 
Coverdale's Bible " (1535); "The Great Bible," or "Cromwell's 
Bible" (1538) ; "Cranmer's Bible' 1 (1540) ; "The Bishops* Bible" 
(1568) ; " King James's Version '* (161 1). 

To this period also belong : the first of the long line of great 
English preachers — Hugh Latimer, (b. 1472, d. 1556); and the first 
of the English metrical versions of the Psalms, that of Sternhold 
Hopkins, 1562. 

2. The Secular Renaissance, typified by the Earl of Surrey y — 
beheaded, 1549, — who translated part of the ^Eneid, introduced 

19 



blank verse and attempted to naturalize the sonnet. Other authors 
are : — 

John Skelton (b. 1460, d. 1 529). A rude, but vigorous, political 
satirist. 

Sir Thos. More (b. 1480, d. 1535). Lord Chancellor of England 
— a martyr to his religious convictions — an enthusiastic admirer 
of the new learning. His " Edward V." is the first example of 
modern English prose. His "Utopia," a great philosophical 
romance. 

Roger A sc ham (b. 1515, d. 1568), tutor to Queen Elizabeth; 
author of " Toxophilus " and " The Scholemaster " which mark a 
decided advance in English prose. 

The accession of Elizabeth (1558) introduced a period of political 
and religious stability, and consequent literary activity. The 
revival of learning, by giving impulse and guidance, made this 
the great creative period in English Literature. 

Edmund Spenser, the first great writer of the Elizabethan Age, 
Born in London, 1552 or 1553. Graduated at Pembroke College, 
Cambridge, 1573. His " Shepheard's Calendar " (1579) character- 
ized. Befriended by Sidney, whom he commemorates in his 
" Astrophel " (1587). In 1580, private secretary to Lord Grey, the 
Lieut. Gov. of Ireland. Receives a grant of Kilcolman Castle 
1586. In 1589, goes to England with Raleigh, carrying the first 
three books of "The Faery Queene." They were published in 1590, 
and Spenser received a pension the same year. Cluster of per- 
sonal poems: "Colin Clout's Come Home Again" (1595); the 
" Amoretti " (1594) ; the " Epithalamion " (1595). Three more 
books of "The Faery Queene" published in 1596. Spenser driven 
from Ireland in 1598, and died Jan. 16, 1599. 

The character and scope of his " Faery Queene." Its defects in 
plan and execution. Its unconscionable length. Its marvelous 
attractiveness. Spenser peculiarly "the poet's poet." The prin- 
cipal charm of " The Faery Queene " lies : (1) in its melody ; (2) in 
its beauty ; (3) in its dealing with a purely ideal world. But 
these very excellences are of such a nature that the poem palls 
upon our taste. An abiding excellence is (4), the nobility its 
conception of life and its immaculate purity. 

9 Consult, on Bible translation, Anderson's "Annals of the Eng- 
lish Bible," Westcott's " History of the English Bible," article, 
"Version Authorized," in "Smith's Dictionary of the Bible"; 
on Caxton, Humphrey's " History of Printing," Knight's " The 
Old Printer and the Modern Press*'; on Sir Thos, More, Green's 

21 



M Short History of English People," p. 325 sq., Miss Manning's 
"Household of Sir Thomas More"; on Spenser, Church's life, 
("English Men of Letters series"), Whipple's "Literature of 
Age of Elizabeth," Lowell's " Among my Books," 2 series. See 
also, the "Clarendon Press Spenser," the " Pitt Press Utopia," 
Arber's Reprints of Latimer, More and Ascham ; and Adams's 
"Famous Books" (on More and Ascham). 

THE RISE OF DRAMATIC LITERATURE. 

The most characteristic feature of the Elizabethan age ; yet the 
outgrowth of preceding ages. The drama everywhere of religious 
origin. Thus in England we have : — 

Miracle Plays. Design, and general character. Actors. Stage 
and properties. Character of the plays illustrated. The Miracle 
Play still lingers at Oberammergau, in the Bavarian Highlands. 
Centres of representation in England. Chester, Townley, York 
and Coventry " Mysteries." Proximity of Coventry to Shakspere's 
home. Threefold influence of the Miracle Play on the English 
Irama : — 

1. To promote the adoption of an historic method. 

2. To secure rich fulness of material. 

3. To promote a blending of tragic with comic elements. 
Moralities. Source of the ethical tendencies in the English 

irama. Character of these plays. Oldest morality-play extant, 
'The Castell of Perseverance." Tendency to allegory. Rise of 
iramatic invention. Out of them grew comedy, and especially : 

The Interludes. John Heywood and " The Four P's." 

First English Comedy : "Ralph Roister Doister," by Nicholas 
Jdall, 155 1. 

First English Tragedy : " Gorboduc, or Ferrex and Porrex," 
Dy Thomas Sackville (Lord Buckhurst), 1561. 

Rapid development of the drama. Marlowe the only great 
lame before Shakspere. Shakspere's possible indebtedness 
;o him. 

The Romantic Drama, thus developed, differed from the classical 
irama : — ■ 

1. In ignoring the "unities "of time, place and action. 

2. In substituting a moral order of *he universe for blind, 
mreasoning fate. 

3. In its vigor of thought, richness of material, and freedom of 
nanner. 

23 



Consult Keltie's " British Dramatists," Hase's " Miracle Plays,** 
Ward's "Old English Drama," and Pollard's "English Miracle 
Plays," White's " Life and Genius of Shakspere," Longfellow's 
"Golden Legend," Jean Ingelow's "Story of Doom," "The 
Coventry Mysteries," Grohman's " Gaddings with a Primitive 
People,'' Stead's "Passion Play at Oberammergau," Arber's 
reprint of " Ralph Roister Doister," Schlegel's " Dramatic Liter- 
ature," Gervinus's "Shakspere Commentaries," Saintsbury's 
" Elizabethan Literature." 

SHAKSPERE. 

A. Shakspere 's Life. Our ignorance of Shakspere. His birth- 
place and its surroundings. The Stratford of to-day. Shakspere 
born, April, 1564 — not later than the twenty-third. Occupation, 
social position and religion of his father. The poet's mother, 
Mary Arden, of good family. Shakspere's education. Did he 
ever study law ? His unexampled facility of acquisition. Cir- 
cumstances of his marriage to Anne Hathaway. Probably an 
unhappy marriage. The deer-stealing story. Other traditional 
anecdotes. Shakspere in London, 1586. A playwright — an actor 
of minor parts — joint proprietor in the Globe and Biackfriars 
theatres. His wealth, disregard of fame, desire for social posi- 
tion, thrifty habits. His death, April 23, 16 16. 

B. His Works. Poems: "Venus and Adonis," 1593; "The 
Rape of Lucrece,"i594 ; "The Passionate Pilgrim," 1599; "The 
Lover's Complaint" and the Sonnets, 1609, Biographical and 
literary significance of the Sonnets. V alue of Shakspere's poems 
— their relation to the plays. 

Origin and growth of the Shakspere-Bacon controversy. Argu- 
ments against the Shaksperian authorship of the plays : (1). Our 
ignorance of Shakspere. (2). The learning evinced by the plays. 
(3). Coincidences in thought and expression. Per contra: (1). 
Shaksperian authorship unquestioned till our own day. (2) Marked 
similarity between the questioned plays and the unquestioned 
! poems. (3). The character of Bacon's acknowledged poetry. 
I See Bacon's Works, Vol. 14, p. 123 sq. (4). The facts in regard 
to Bacon's early and later life. 

Five of his best plays written by 1598: Merchant of Venice, 
Richard IIL, Henry IV. f Midsummer Nighfs Dream, Romeo and 
1 Juliet. Rapid, but regular, development of Shakspere's genius 
traced by external and internal evidence. Four periods recognized : 
1. " In the Workshop," or Tentative period, (1585 — 1595) poems 
and experiments in dramatization. 

25 



2. " In the World," (1596 — 1602) histories — comedies. 

3. " Out of the Depths,'* (1603— 1607) tragedies. 

4. " On the Heights.^" (1608 — -1613) Tempest and Winter's Tale, 
Thirty-seven plays arc attributed to Shakspere. Pericles, Titus 

Andvonicus, JIamy VI. P I., probably not his. The Two 
Noble kinsmen and Hdward III., should, perhaps, be added. 
Sixteen ^feys published in Shakspere's lifetime, in " small quarto." 
Circumstances of publication First complete edition — " first 
folio" — 1623 ; ct second folio,' 8 1633. Their value. Necessity for 
textual criticism Best editions and critiques. 

Apparatus for the study of Shakspere : Globe (or Arurdel) 
edition ; Clarendon Press, Rolfe's, Hudson's or Deighton's " Mer- 
chant of Venice," "As you like it," " Lear," "Macbeth," " Hamlet," 
" Tempest ;" Dowden's " Shakspere Primer ;" White's " Life and 
Genius of Shakspere ;" Abbot's " Shaksperean Grammar," Mrs. 
Clarke's " Concordance to Shakspere ; Schmidt's " Shakspere- 
Lexicon." 

An Estimate of His Genius \ Shakspere invented no plots. Not 
a model of elegance, or good taste. His principal characteristics: 

1. Subtle insight into human character and life. 

2. Rare combination of analytic and synthetic power. 

3. Many-sidedness, Shakspere has more points of contact with 
man and nature than any other author. Shakspere : Chaucer : : 
poet of all time : poet of a single age. 

4. Rare capacity to identify himself with his characters. Intense 
reality. 

5. Ease and grace of his grandest achievments. His immense 
reserved power. 

Consult on Shakspere : " The Shakspere Memorial,' Sidney 
Lee's " Stratford on Avon ;" Irving's " Sketch Book," Grant 
White's "England Without and Within," William Winter's "Shak- 
spere's England ;" Dowden's "Shakspere : His Mind and Art," 
"Shakspere's Sonnets ;" Tyler's "Shakspere's Sonnets ;" Corson's 
" Introduction to Shakspere ;" Craik's " English of Shakspere ;" 
Gervinus's " Shakspere Commentaries ;" Schlegel's " Dramatic 
Literature;" Ulrici's "Shakspere's Dramatic Art," Bucknil's "Mad 
Folk of Shakspere ;" Goethe's " Wilhelm Meister" (on Hamlet); 
Furnivall's Introduction to " The Leopold Shakspere ;" Cole- 
ridge's " Biographia Literaria ;" Hazlitt's " Characters of Shak- 
spere's Plays ;" Whipple's " Literature of the Age of Elizabeth ;" 
Saintsbury's "Elizabethan Literature ; Moulton's "Shakspere as a 
Dramatic Artist;" Ransome's "-Short Studies of Shakspere's Plots." 



27 



TEST QUESTIONS ON SHAKSPERE. 

1. Where was Shakspere born ? 

2. On what river is Stratford ? 

3. What well-known School on the same river? 

4. In what county is Stratford ? 

5. What noted towns in Warwickshire ? 

6. In what direction and how far from London is Stratford ? 

7. What is the present condition of the town ? 

8. If you were set down in England, whence and by what 
route would you get to Stratford? 

9. When was Shakspere born ? 

10. In the reign of what monarch? 

11. What was his father's name, occupation, social position? 

12. What was his mother's name and rank ? 

13. What were the poet's educational advantages ? 

14. What has been inferred from his correct use of legal 
terms; and with what reason ? 

15. What are the facts respecting his marriage ? 

16. Was his marriage a happy one ? 

17. When did he go to London, and in what circumstances? 

18. His first occupation there ? 

19. Did he attain distinction as an actor ? 

20. Any literary labor combined? 

21. What was the first work published under his own name ? 

22. The second ? 

23. What were his other poems ? 

24. What is the value of Shakspere's poems ? 

25. Were any of his plays published during his life ? 

26. How many ? 

27. In what form ? 

28. Under what circumstances ? 

29. Into what periods may Shakspere's literary career be 
divided ? 

30. What is the earliest contemporary notice of Shakspere's 
plays ? 

31. When was the first collected edition of the plays pub- 
lished ? 

32. By what editors ; and in what form ? 

33. What was the condition of the text ? 

34. Why was publication so long deferred ? 



29 



35- How does the second folio compare with the first ? 

36. What peculiarity in the third folio ? 

37. What are some of the best modern editions ? 

38. What degree of prominence did Shakspere attain in Lon- 
don ? 

39. Did he attain wealth ? 

40. What seems to have been the principal object of his 
ambition ? 

41. W T hen did he return to Stratford? 

42. When die ? 

43. Where buried ? 

44. Did he leave any descendants? 

45. What celebrated men were contemporary with Shaks- 
pere ? 

46. With whom is he known to have been familiar ? 

47. Has the authorship of Shakspere's plays ever been ques- 
tioned ? 

48. On what grounds, and with what reason ? 

49. Whence did Shakspere derive the material for his plays ? 

50. Does this fact detract from his originality ? 

51. What kind of verse does Shakspere employ in his dramas ? 

52. By whom was blank verse first employed in England ? 

53. By whom first applied to dramatic uses ? 

54. What English and American poets have used it to best 
advantage ? 

55. Of how many feet does it consist ? What kind of feet ? 
How many syllables ? 

56. Where does the accent fall ? Where the ictus of the line ? 

57. Are the rules respecting accent rigidly observed by Shak- 
pere ? 

58. Are the rules respecting the number of syllables ever 
transgressed ? If so, in what circumstances ? 

59. What was the condition of the theatre and its properties 
in Shakspere's time ? 

60. What points of dissimilarity between the Classical and the 
Romantic drama ? 

61. What do you regard as the principal characteristics of 
Shakspere's genius ? 

62. W 7 hat limitation is noted by Whipple and Saintsbury ? 



31 



JOHN MILTON. 



Milton united the secular and the religious tendencies of the 
early English renaissance (Taine). Born, London, Dec. 9, 1608. 
Character and influence of his father. Childhood devoted to 
severe study. Entered Christ College, Cambridge, 1625. Gradu- 
ated A. B., 1629 ; A. M., 1632. " Hymn on the Nativity" written 
at College, 1629. Six years (1632 — 1638) spent at Horton in study. 
Sources of Milton's culture : Greek and Latin classics ; previous 
English literature ; Scriptures in the original tongues. His 
" L'Allegro," " II Penseroso," "Comus" and " Lycidas " then 
written. His minor poems estimated. Visited Italy 1638 — 9. 
Milton a schoolmaster, 1639 — 1649. Very thorough and very harsh. 
Controversial writings, assailing Arch-bishop Laud. "Areopagi- 
tica" and "Tractate on Education," 1644. Significance of the 
former. 

Marries Mary Powell, the daughter of an Oxfordshire Cavalier, 
1643. She soon leaves him and he publishes four treatises on 
divorce. A reconciliation is effected ; his wife bears him four chil- 
dren and dies in 1653. Twice married again. Not, perhaps, the. 
most amiable of husbands and fathers. 

Latin Secretary to the Commonwealth, 1649 — ^59* Published 
his " Eikonoklastes," 1649 i his " Defensio pro Populo Anglicano,' 1 
165 1. His political prominence. 

Three periods of his literary career : Early Verse Period, 1629 
— 1639, Prose Period, coincident with the Commonwealth, 1639 — 
1660, Later Verse Period, 1660 — 1674. "Paradise Lost," begun in 
1658 and published 1667, " Paradise Regained" and " Samson 
Agonistes," 1671. Milton died Nov. 8, 1674. His rank as a poet. 

Excellences : Sublimity. Vigor of Imagination — Taine's strict- 
ures — Paradise Lost not an epic, but a drama. Majesty and Dig- 
nity of Expression. Purity. Artistic Skill. 

Defects: Lack of passion, humor, psychologic insight; and 
consequent lack of human interest. 

The literary estimate to be put on Milton's prose. 

Consult the Clarendon Press " English Poems" and "Areopag- 
itica" ; "Treasures from Milton's Prose." "Maiden and Married 
Life of Mary Powell " ; Masson's " Life of Milton " ; Taine's 
English Literature, Vol. 1 ; Sotheby's " Rambles in Elucidation of 
Milton's Autograph"; Matthew Arnold's " Mixed Essays"; Essays 
on Milton by Addison, Johnson, Southey, Hazlitt, Landor, Chan- 
ning, Macaulay, Everett, Lowell, J. R. Seeley. 

33 



TEE AGE OF QUEEN ANNE. 



Religious tendencies of the previous period exemplified by 
Bunyan (who is noteworthy for his marvelous English, his min- 
gled humor and pathos, his keen insight into character, his 
Dantesque verisimilitude); and by such Cavalier writers as Jeremy 
Taylor, Thomas Fuller, Sir Thomas Browne and Izaak Walton. A 
natural reaction was intensified by the restoration of the Stuarts. 
This literary transition was marked by the publication of Butler's 
mock-heroic poem entitled " Hudibras" (1663). The period under 
discussion extends from 1660 to 1789, and is by no means homo- 
geneous ; though throughout the whole of it French Classicism 
(represented by Voltaire and Boileau) was dominant in England. 
The lowest stage of literary degradation was reached, early in the 
period, by the comic dramatists Wycherley and Congreve. 
Jeremy Collier's " Short View of the Profaneness and Immorality 
of the English Stage" (1698) created a purer atmosphere. But 
English Literature down to the French Revolution of 1789, is pre- 
dominantly characterized by laxity of morals and shallowness of 
thought, partially redeemed by exquisite yet excessive refinement of 
expression. The brightest portion of the period — nearly coincident 
with the reign of Anne (1702 — 1714) — has been called "The 
Augustan Age of English Literature"; but the use of the term is 
questionable. 

This age, however, supplied that culture and refinement which 
were necessary to supplement the life-giving impulse of the 
Elizabethan period ; and to it we are largely indebted for the 
smoothness and finish of modern English verse, the clearness and 
compactness of modern English prose. The typical writers of the 
period are : in poetry, Dryden, Pope and Goldsmith ; in prose, 
Addison, Steele, Goldsmith and Johnson. 

Dryden (b. 1641, d. 1700) hampered by French influences — over- 
estimated his powers — the literary magnate of his day — deserves 
much of the praise given to Pope for imparting finish and elegance 
to English poetry — a master of felicitous diction in poetry and 
prose. Most widely known by his " Ode on St. Cecilia's Day," 
and his " Alexander's Feast"; best known by his satires, especially 
" Mac Flecknoe." 

Pope (b. 1688, d. 1744) the representative poet of the period — 
shallowness of thought and exquisiteness of expression preemi- 
nently his characteristics. See his " Essay on Man " and his 
"Essay on Criticism." He is never profound, but infallibly clear 

35 



and effective, affording a rare stock of quotable passages. Seen 
at his worst in "The Dunciad"; at his best, in "The Rape of the 
Lock." His translation of Homer, at once the worst and the best. 
Ruskin's claim that Pope ranks first of English poets considered. 
Austin Dobson's vindication of Pope. 

Goldsmith (b. 1728, d. 1774). His "Traveller" and "Deserted 
Village " the most charming types of eighteenth century poetic 
literature. His prose style perhaps the most perfect that this age 
of refinement developed. 

Addison (b. 1672, d. 17 19) commonly regarded, however, as the 
great master of elegant and facile English prose ; but he lacks 
strength and is almost too sweet. His "Spectator" should be 
read by snatches. He may be regarded as a shrewd observer of 
life and manners ; a quiet, yet effective humorist ; a genial satirist 
of irreligion and immorality —but that is all. 

Sir Richard Steele (b. 1671, d. 1729) Addison's coadjutor, is his 
superior in vigor and vivacity. 

Samuel Johnson (b. 1709, d. 1784). His style, though tinged with 
Latinisms, is clear, strong, sonorous, dignified. From reading 
Boswell, instead of Johnson, we overlook the sterling excellences 
of this literary dictator. The services rendered to literature by 
his dictionary. The significance of his " Lives of the Poets." 

We find in this period the germs of certain literary types whose 
development is the most striking characteristic of the Victorian 
period. For example : — 

1. The first two names in the long line of eminent English his- 
torians — Hume and Gibbon. 

2. The rise of English periodical literature, as represented by 
De Foe's "Review," Steele's "Tatler," Addison's "Spectator," 
Cave's " Gentlemen's Magazine," Johnson's " Rambler." 

3. The rise of modern schools of scientific thought, represented 
in mental science, by Locke, Reid, Hume ; in physical science, 
by Newton ; in political science, by De Foe, Burke and Adam 
Smith. ("Wealth of Nations," 1776). 

4. The rise of Methodism — or a general revival of religion and 
morality throughout England. A period surely is not contempt- 
ible religiously, which boasts such names as Burnett, South, 
Wesley and Whitefield. 

5. The development of the English novel by De Foe, Richard- 
son, Fielding, Goldsmith, etc. 

The greatest man of the period (not even excepting Edmund 

37 



Burke), though by no means its most representative man, was 
De Foe (b. 1661, d. 1731), who may be regarded as: — 

(1) . A staunch advocate of civil and religious liberty. 

(2) . The founder of English periodical literature. 

(3) . One of the great masters of English prose. 

(4) . The founder of English prose fiction. 

Consult on the period: Gosse's "Eighteenth Century Literature"; 
Thackeray's "English Humorists," "Four Georges" and " Henry 
Esmond;" Macaulay on Dryden, Johnson and Addison ; Lowell's 
"Among my Books " (on Dryden), and "My Study Windows " (on 
Pope) ; Boswell's " Life of Johnson;" Leslie Stephen's " Hours in a 
Library" (on Pope and De Foe); Forster's "Life of Goldsmith" 
and "Biographical Essays"; Irving's " Life of Goldsmith"; Mor- 
ley's "Burke"; The "English Men of Letters" series ; The Clar- 
endon Press editions of Burke and Dryden ; Hales's " Longer 
English Poems"; De Foe's "Journal of the Plague" and "Gold- 
smith's Works" in Morley's Universal Library. 

THE DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH FICTION. 

Importance of the theme owing to the vast amount of fiction 
printed and read. The absolute beginnings of English fiction 
very far back. Malory's "Morte d'Arthur," Sir Thomas More's 
"Utopia," Sir Philip Sidney's "Arcadia," Bunyan's "Pilgrim's 
Progress," Sv/ift's " Tale of a Tub " and "Gulliver's Travels." 

Daniel De Foe ("Robinson Crusoe," 1719), perhaps the founder 
of English fiction. He originated and perfected "the story of 
adventure." Principal characteristic, verisimilitude — exemplified 
in his "Journal of the Plague" and "Captain Singleton." 

Samuel Richardson gave us in 1740 " Pamela," the first English 
"society novel." The moral purpose of his novels — their epis- 
tolary nature — their immoral tendency — their unreal character. 
But they attempt, at least, to copy nature ; evince power and 
pathos ; are assigned a high rank by the best critics. " Clarissa 
Harlowe " his best book. 

Henry Fielding began to write novels to caricature Richardson. 
" Joseph Andrews," his first book ; " Tom Jones," his best. Pro- 
nounced by Thackeray and Scott " the first of British novelists." 
Superior to Richardson in knowledge of men and fidelity to 
nature. 

Laurence Sterne's " Tristram Shandy " — a freakish, plotless, 
objectionable book, with many touches of humor and pathos — 
out of the line of development. 

39 



So, too, the novels of Tobias Smollet, which are vigorous and 
witty, but irredeemably vulgar, and mark no advance on those 
which preceded them. " Roderick Random," the briefest and 
best. Sidney Lanier's severe strictures on these early novelists. 

Goldsmith's simple and touching "Vicar of Wakefield" (1766) 
did not essentially modify the tone of British fiction. 

The gap between Fielding's stories and the modern society 
novel was bridged by Fanny Burney in her "Evelina" (1778). 
See Macaulay's essay on " Madame d' Arblay." 

No less than 20 novelists, of whom 12 were women, between 
1789 and 1814. Among them were: William Godwin ("Caleb 
Williams ") ; Mrs. Radcliffe, (" Mysteries of Udolpho ") ; Miss 
Edgeworth ; Hannah More ; Jane Porter ("Thaddeus of Warsaw" 
and "The Scottish Chiefs"). Jane Austen ("Sense and Sensi- 
bility," 181 1) the novelist of the period, and unsurpassed in the 
delineation of quiet domestic scenes. Howells's excessive praise. 

Between 18 14 and 1832, Sir Walter Scott published 29 novels, 
than which we have had none more popular. Scott developed a 
new type of fiction, " the historical novel," and handled it with 
rare ability. See his " Ivanhoe," " Quentin Durward " and 
" Peveril of the Peak." His Scottish stories (for example, " The 
Heart of Mid Lothian "), and especially his Jacobite stories, 
handled with most ardor and interest. Conflicting estimates of 
Leslie Stephen and Frederick Harrison. His claim to gratitude 
and permanent reputation — the latter resting on his rare historic 
imagination. 

Thirty-five British novelists contemporary with Scott. Four 
deserve special mention : G. P. R. James — 189 volumes of his- 
torical fiction, now little read. Capt. Marryat — a somewhat 
chastened and subdued Smollet — rollicking stories of life at sea — 
" Midshipman Easy " the best. Benjamin Disraeli (Earl Beacons- 
field) Prime Minister of England — society novels, with a politi- 
cal trend, which owe their reputation largely to his political 
position — " Vivian Gray " a type. Bulwer the only contemporary 
of Scott whose reputation is assured. His earlier stories (e. g. 
" Pelham ") romantic, unreal, unheal thful. His historical fiction 
(e. g. " Harold," " Rienzi ") inferior to Scott's. Marvelous change 
in his style. His later works (e, g. "The Caxtons ") — simple, 
natural and pure — do not suffer by comparison with those of any 
recent novelist. 

More than 100 novelists of more or less note since the death of 
Scott. Leading novelists of the Victorian period, Dickens and 

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Thackeray. Their modification of the society novel. Thackeray 
a satirist rather than a novelist. Dickens, optimist ; Thackeray, 
pessimist. Both caricaturists. Thackeray the favorite of the 
educated and cultured ; Dickens preferred by the masses. " David 
Copperfield," Dickens's best work ; " Henry Esmond," Thack- 
eray's. Their historical novels. 

The "novel with a purpose." Mrs. Stowe's "Uncle Tom's 
Cabin ;" Charles Reade's " Put Yourself in His Place ; " Miss 
Muloch's "Hannah;" Wilkie Collins's "Man and Wife;" 
Dickens's "Nicholas Nickleby" and "Martin Chuzzlewit." 

" Psychologic fiction" characterized. Hawthorne, the acknowl- 
edged founder. Charlotte Bronte's " Jane Eyre." George Eliot 
— who has written also a historical novel (" Romola ") and a novel 
with a purpose (" Daniel Deronda ") — excels in this sphere. 
" Adam Bede " superior to " Middlemarch." 

Realistic tendencies of recent fiction. George Meredith. Writers 
of single famous novels. The sensational school of fiction. 
Novelists who have yet their reputation to make. Anthony 
Trollope and George Mac Donald. 

Consult on this topic : Masson's " British Novelists ; " Scott's 
" Lives of the Novelists ; " Forsyth's " Novels and Novelists of 
the Eighteenth Century;" Jusserand's "English Novel in the 
Time of Shakspere;" Sidney Lanier's "The English Novel;" 
Tuckerman's "History of English Prose Fiction;" Leslie 
Stephen's " Hours in a Library " (on De Foe, Richardson and 
Scott) ; Frederick Harrison's " Choice of Books " (on Scott) ; 
Richard H. Hutton's "Modern Guides to English Thought in 
Matters of Faith;" Gosse's "Eighteenth Century Literature;" 
Wilkinson's " Free Lance"; Hutton's "Essays in Literary Criti- 
cism " ; John Morley's " Miscellanies," Vol. 3. (The three last on 
" George Eliot.") W. D. Howells's " Criticism and Fiction " ; 
Fields's "Yesterdays with Authors" (on Thackeray and Dickens). 

HOW TO TEST A NOVEL. 

1. With reference to plot — both in its general scope and in the 
artistic skill with which it is developed. 

2. With reference to characterization) or the fidelity with which 
it delineates : (1) the superficial traits, (2) the essential attributes, 
of the men and women whom it introduces. 

3. With reference to its incidental sketches of the scenery, life and 
manners (1) of the present day ; (2) of some period of the past. 

4. With reference to its elucidation of important problems, 
whether (1) moral, (2) social, (3) political. 

4i 



5. With reference to its style, which should be : (i) natural, (2) 
vivacious, (3) thoroughly consonant with the character of the work. 

6. Wkh reference to the general nobility, whether moral or 
aesthetic, of the author s purpose, and the degree to which he 
has attained the end proposed. 

THE VICTORIAN PERIOD. 

This period ushered in by the French revolution of 1789. Ger- 
man influence, during the period, superior to that of France ; but 
it is, distinctively, an English period. It is characterized by great 
and varied literary activity ; but is constructive, or elaborative, 
rather than creative. Its most striking features are : — ■ 

1. The rise of the romantic, as opposed to the classical, school oj 
English poetry. The influence of Burns and Cowper in favor of 
freedom and naturalness of poetic composition. Wordsworth the 
acknowledged leader of revolt against the school of Dryden and 
Pope. His influence as a reformer of poetic taste. His eminence 
as an interpreter of nature. Inequality of his productions. 

The significance of the terms "subjective " and " objective,'' as 
applied to British poetry. A better classification : Poetry of 
Thought (Wordsworth); Poetry of Feeling (Byron); Poetry of 
Action (Scott). A group of poets unsurpassed in British literary 
history. Among them : Scott, Byron, Shelley, Keats, Tennyson, 
Browning, Swinburne, William Morris. 

2. The marvelous development of periodical literature. Advan- 
tages and disadvantages of this system of literary production. 
Authors most eminent in this direction : Sydney Smith, De Quincey, 
Macaulay, Ruskin, Hamerton, Gladstone, Richard Henry Hutton, 
John Morley. 

3. The develop?nent of new types of fiction ; and the perfection 
of the English novel by Jane Austen, Scott, Dickens, Thackeray 
and "George Eliot." 

4. The degree of attention paid to historical studies, which have, 
been characterized both by vivid historical imagination and pro- 
found research. Partisan histories of England. Hume's (55 B. C. 
— 1688 A. D.) written from a Tory stand-point. A vindication of 
the House of Stuart. Macaulay's (1685 — 1702) written from a 
Whig stand-point. Brilliant but tinged with partisan prejudice. 
A glorification of the House of Brunswick. Froude's (1529 — 1603) 
the work of a special-pleader. An apology for the House 01 

47 



Tudor. Recent masters of history : Hallam, Lingard, Knight, 
Green, Freeman, Stubbs ; Carlyle, Arnold, Grote, Dean Stanley ; 
Buckle, Merivale, Justin McCarthy, James Bryce. 

5. The successful study of science. Most eminent names : — 

(1) In Mental and Moral Science : Dugald Stewart, Coleridge, 
Whately, Hamilton ; Bain, Lecky, Lewes, Herbert Spencer. 

(2) In the Natural Sciences : Brewster, Whewell, Herschell, 
Davy, John Dalton, Lyell, Faraday, Darwin, Huxley, Tyndall. 

(3) In Anthropology : Sir John Lubbock, E. B. Tylor. 

(4) In Ethnology : Wilkinson, Prichard. 

(5) In Philology : Latham, Garnett, Max Muller. 

(6) In Political Science : J. S. Mill, Jevons, Bagehot, Ar.stin, 
Amos, Maine, 

6. The literary prominence attained by women — e.g. Mrs. Brown- 
ing, Jean Ingelow ; Jane Austen, Charlotte Bronte, " George 
Eliot," Mrs. Muloch-Craik ; Lady Holland, Mrs. Oliphant ; Mary 
Somerville, Mrs. Fawcett ; Harriet Martineau, Mrs. Jameson. 

7. The religious and humanitarian literature of our age. Rep- 
resentative names : Robert Hall, Thomas Guthrie, Charles H. 
Spurgeon, Frederick W. Robertson, Canon Liddon, Alexander 
McLaren ; Chalmers, Mansel, Mozley, James Martineau, John 
Henry Newman ; Tregelles, Alford, Ellicott, Lightfoot, Perowne. 
The humanitarian tendencies of the age — indeed, its general char- 
acteristics, exemplified by Charles Kingsley. 

Consult on the period : Mrs. Oliphant's " Literary History of 
England;" Henry Morley (Vol. 2000 in the Tauchnitz Library); 
Stedman's "Victorian Poets;" Devey's " Comparative Estimate 
of Modern British Poets ; " Brooke's " Theology in the English 
Poets ; " Shairp's " Studies in Poetry and Philosophy" (on Words- 
worth and Coleridge), and "Aspects of Poetry;" Masson's 
"Recent British Philosophy " and "Wordsworth, Shelley and 
Keats ; " Peter Baynes's " Lessons from my Masters ; " Lowell's 
"Among my Books " (on Wordsworth and Keats), and " My Study 
Windows' ' (on Carlyle); Stirling's " Jerrold, Tennyson, Macaulay 
and other Essays;'' Whipple's "Essays and Reviews;" Justin 
McCarthy's "Modern Leaders;" Hutton's "Essays* in Literary 
Criticism ; " The " English Men of Letters " series ; The " Great 
Writers'' series. 



49 



A BIRD'S EYE VIEW OF ENGLISH POETRY 



What constitutes poetry ? Consult " The Nature of Poetry " by 
E. C. Stedman ; " The Golden Guess " by John Vance Cheney; 
" Short Studies in Literature " by Hamilton Wright Mabie. Lowell 
says : " To be a poet is to make beautiful conceptions immortal 
by exquisiteness of phrase ". Three things essential : — 

1. A poetic conception — ox poetic vision. This is of paramount 
importance. This poetic vision must be within the sphere of the 
beautiful in the highest sense of that term. 

2. Poetic expression — or adequate utterance of what the poet 
sees. Shelley (" Defense of Poetry ") says : " To be a poet is to 
apprehend the true, the beautiful and the good in the relation sub- 
sisting—first, between existence and perception and secondly, 
between perception and expression." Cf. Cheney, p. 39, on " Half 
poets vs. whole poets." 

Rhyme and metre not essential to poetic diction. See Sir 
Philip Sidney's " Defence of Poesy", p. 11, and cf . the poetry of 
the Hebrews. Rhythm of essential significance. See Herbert 
Spenser's "First Principles", ch. 10 ; and article on " Poetry" in 
Encyc. Britannica — especially with reference to alleged formless- 
ness of Hebrew poetry. 

For an illustration of the difference in conception and utterance 
between poetry and prose (or poetry and science) see Stedman, p. 30. 

3. The true poet must possess, besides vision and utterance, 
enduring vitality. To this end he must appeal to the essential 
elements in man's intellectual, aesthetic and ethical nature. As 
Shelley says, (p. 10) "A poem is the very image of life expressed 
in its eternal truth." 

Applying this working definition, Chaucer is the first of English 
poets who possessed enduring vitality. His vision was not pro- 
found but comprehended nature as well as humanity. He pos- 
sessed the gift of poetic utterance in no ordinary degree. See 
Macmillan's "Chaucer Primer ", pp. 132, 133. 

No vitality for 200 years after Chaucer. As to Spenser's poetic 
vision (i. q. ideality) and poetic utterance there can be no question. 

Shakspere, too, instantly and abundantly meets the three tests 
by which we have agreed to try the poet. His insight into man is 
consummate. His utterance seems rather thought itself than the 
garb of thought. In every poet whose greatness is unquestioned, 



5i 



thought and expression — or poetic vision and poetic art— are very 
nearly in equipoise. 

Milton, too, stands the test ; though his utterance possibly 
surpasses his vision, and judged by his own standard that poetry 
must be "simple, sensuous, passionate," he is no poet at all. 

The Classical School of Poetry (that of Dryden and Pope) was 
founded upon French models and conformed to French critical 
standards. See Carlyle, " Hist, of Lit. p. 170. The insight, 
utterance and enduring vitality of this school open to question. 
See Stedman, p. 213; Mabie, p. 125. Cf. Corson's "Primer of 
English Verse p. 107. 

On Cowper's claim to be regarded as the harbinger of a new 
school, see Edmond Scherer, " Essays in English Literature," p. 
183. Burns (to whom Taine assigned this position) a far truer 
poet. But Wordsworth must be regarded as the founder of the 
Romantic School (or free, untrammelled, spontaneous school) of 
English poetry. His theory of poetry ; his influence ; his claims to 
personal consideration. 

From the time of Wordsworth to the present day we recognize 
objective and subjective tendencies in English poetry. Poets of 
objective tendency (or "absolute poetic vision") by no means 
inferior to those of subjective tendency (or "relative poetic 
vision ") See Theodore Watts in Encyc. Britannica. Browning 
and Tennyson types of these classes. 

Reacting against the exaggerations and excesses of the Romantic 
School, we have the Pre-Raphaelite School of poetry — an out- 
growth of the Pre-Raphaelite School of Painting. Dante Gabriel 
Rossetti prominent in both, The one principle recognized by this 
school, " Rigid adherence to truth," not the only principle that 
should be recognized in the domain of poetry. Exemplars of this 
principle have seemed to lack both poetic vision and poetic utter- 
ance. The Pre-Raphaelite is being supplanted by The Realistic 
School of which Robert Browning may be accepted as a type ; in 
contrast with which we have The Art School founded by Keats 
and perfected by Tennyson. 

Turning from these schools, let us consider two groups of poets 
— the Georgian and the Victorian, 

The Georgian Group embraces Cowper and Burns ; Words- 
worth and Coleridge ; Scott, Southey and Campbell ; Byron and 
Moore ; Shelley and Keats — a most brilliant galaxy. Coleridge, 
Shelley, Byron, Scott and Keats briefly characterized. 



53 



The Victorian Group — which may be regarded as completed at 
the death of Tennyson — includes (besides Browning and Tenny- 
son) John Keble, Matthew Arnold, William Morris, Dante Gabriel 
Rossetti, Sir Edwin Arnold, Austin Dobson (and a cluster of kin- 
dred spirits who by their servile adherence to the maxim " art for 
art's sake " illustrate the decadence of the art school. See 
Azarias ut supra, p. 61). 

The greatest of living English poets is unquestionably Algernon 
Charles Swinburne — concerning whom, however, consult Stedman 
ut supra , p, 132. 

Theodore Watts gives the highest praise to one other poet of 
the Victorian Group — Elizabeth Barrett Browning. He classifies 
all poets as " Poets of Art " (typified by Virgil and Keats) and 
" Poets of Energy " (typified by Pindar and Mrs. Browning). If 
Mrs. Browning deserves this rank, it is due to the prominence of 
the spiritual element in her poetry. Recent English poetry 
classified, by Henry S. Pancoast, " Representative English Litera- 
ture ", as : — 

(1) The Poetry of Evasion — typified by the earlier poems of 
Matthew Arnold, by Swinburne, Rossetti and William Morris. 

(2) The Poetry of Doubt— typified by the later poems of Arnold, 
by Arthur Hugh Clough et aL 

(3) The Poetry of Faith and Hope — typified by Tennyson and 
Browning. 

F. W. H. Myers {Nineteenth Century for Dec. 1892,) regards 
Morris as typifying optimistic materialism and Swinburne as typi- 
fying pessimistic materialism — both being contrasted with Tenny- 
son and Browning. Cf. Mabie, ut supra, p. 124. 

Of these two poets — one subjective, the other objective — one 
artistic, the other realistic — but both profoundly spiritual — Ten- 
nyson excels in utterance ; Browning in vision ; Tennyson is more 
sure of enduring reputation. The poet of the future may combine 
the excellences of both. 



55 



ALFRED TENNYSON. 



Alfred Tennyson is the son of the Rev. Geo. Clayton Tennyson, 
LL. D., Rector of Somersby, Lincolnshire. Born Aug. 6, 1809. 
Descended from noble Norman family of D' Eynecourt. " Ode 
cO Memory" throws light on the surroundings of his childhood. 
"In Memoriam," lxxxix, gives a picture of his home life. See 
"In Tennyson Land." 

Early education at home and at the neighboring village of 
Louth. Entered Trinity College, Cambridge, 1828. Whewell his 
tutor. " In Memoriam," lxxxvi, illustrates the spirit of his college 
life, Took the Chancellor's Medal, for a poem on Timbuctoo, 
1829. "Poems by Two Brothers" (Charles and Alfred) had 
already appeared in 1827. First acknowledged volume of poems, 
1830 (reviewed by "Crusty Christopher" in Blackwood's Mag- 
azine, 1831). This volume contains "Lilian," "Adeline" and 
" Mariana." Varying estimates of the poems. Must be regarded 
as experiments in versification. Dynamic relation of landscape 
to figures (subsequently employed with great effect) developed in 
the " Mariana." See Brimley's " Essays." 

A second volume of poems, in 1832, including "The Miller's 
Daughter," "(Enone," "The Lotus Eaters," " The May Queen." 
Savage review in " London Quarterly," vol. 49. This volume marks 
Tennyson's development from the word-painter to the poet. Col- 
lected edition of poems, 2 vols., 1842, adds " Morte d' Arthur," 
"Godiva," "The Two Voices," "Locksley Hall." This assured 
Tennyson's position. "The Princess," 1847, his first long poem. 
Essentially idyllic. Influence of Theocritus. Cf. Atlantic, Aug. 
1871. Its bearing on the vexed question of woman's rights. 
Tennyson as a song-writer. 

"In Memoriam," published in 1850, suggested by the death of 
his friend Hallam ; yet not the mere record of a personal grief, 
but a great philosophic poem whose theme is Death and Eternity. 
Illustrative specimens : liv, lv, lvi. A time-analysis the only 
possible analysis of this poem. Three Christmases in the poem 
(xxviii, lxxviii, civ.) Hence it delineates the grief of a speculative 
poet, familiar with the questionings and doubts of the nineteenth 
century, deploring the loss of his dearest and most congenial 
friend through the two or three years following the death of that 
friend. 

" Maud and other Poems " (1855) slightingly estimated by the 
critics, but an especial favorite with its author, and characterized by 

57 



exceptional fire and enthusiasm. "The new Maud" compared 
with the old. 

"The Idyls of the King" (Enid, Vivien, Elaine and Guinevere), 
1859. Regarded by many critics as Tennyson's masterpiece. 
Characterization very fine. Lack obvious coherence, and con- 
stitute no proper epic. See " Every Man his own Poet." 

" Enoch Arden " (1864) a touching story, chastely and beauti- 
fully told ; but has not materially enhanced the author's repu- 
tation. The same is true of "The Holy Grail " and "The Last 
Tournament" (which complete the " Idyls of the King"), and of 
Tennyson's dramas, (" Queen Mary," " Harold, etc.)" " Ballads and 
other Poems" (1880) is very unequal in quality, but contains some 
admirable things. " Tiresias and other Poems" (1885) less sig- 
nificant. "Locksley Hall sixty years after" (1887) is character- 
ized by a pessimistic spirit that is utterly foreign to Tennyson, and 
many grave artistic defects. " Demeter and other Poems " 
(1889), a volume which shows marked traces of Browning's 
influence, is better worthy of our author. 

Tennyson Poet Laureate since 185 1. Receives a pension of 
^200. His personal characteristics. Commonly regarded as the 
first of living English poets, though his rank is not unquestioned. 
Charged with obscurity, with class-feeling, with mannerism. 
Causes of his alleged obscurity. Certainly deficient in psycho- 
logic insight, spontaneity and passion (not pathos). Must be 
credited, however, with: (1) Exquisite felicity of diction. (2) 
Sustained perfection of style. Contrast Wordsworth. (3) Fresh- 
ness — if not originality. (4) Variety — cf. " The Princess," " Maud," 
" Enoch Arden." (5) Rare lyric capacity. (6) Rare capacity for 
picturesque description. (7) Purity, earnestness and unaffected 
manliness. (8) Sympathy with his age. 

Consult on Tennyson : introduction to the Harpers' edition of 
Tennyson (which is the most complete); " Tennysoniana;" Sterl- 
ing's " Essays ; " Brimley's " Essays ; " Stedman's " Victorian 
Poets ; " Bayne's " Lessons from my Masters ; " Van Dyke's 
" Poetry of Tennyson ; " Tainsh's " Study of Tennyson ; " Robert- 
son's "Analysis of In Memoriam ; " Gatty's " Key to In Memor- 
iam ; " Genung's "In Memoriam;" Rolfe's "Princess;" 
"Every Man His Own Poet ;" J. Hain Friswell's "Modern Men 
of Letters;" "Harper's Monthly," March, 1869; "Scribner's 
Monthly," August, 1889 ; Demaus's English Literature, p. 134 ; 
"Lectures of a Certain Professor," pp. 165-7. 



59 



TEST QUESTIONS ON TENNYSON. 



Give an outline of the facts concerning the life of Tennyson, 
and indicate his social, religious and political affiliations. 

Name, and characterize in general terms, the principal produc- 
tions of Tennyson. 

Give hints towards a time-analysis of the " In Memoriam," and 
indicate the nature and scope of this poem. 

Mention those characteristics of Tennyson's poetry upon which 
his reputation mainly rests. 

What are the principal causes of Tennyson's alleged obscurity ? 

ROBERT BROWNING. 

Born at London, May 7, 1812 ; died at Venice, Dec. 12, 1889. 
Father, a man of literary taste and of somewhat ample means. 
The family were dissenters, and Browning was educated at 
London University. 

Character of his early poems, modelled after Byron. Influence 
of Shelley and Keats upon his style. First published poem, 
"Pauline," (1833). 

Dramatic poetry early claimed his attention. Among the more 
significant of his so-called dramas are: "Paracelsus," (1835); 
"Strafford," (acted 1837); " Pippa Passes," (1841); "A Blot on the 
Scutcheon," (1843), and " Luria," (1846). The first, third and fifth 
especially worthy of attention. 

" Sordello," published in 1840, met with a very unfavorable 
reception. Its theme, (" the development of a poet's mind,") is 
attractive, but the obscurity of the poem is dense. "A poem writ- 
ten by an immature dramatist who has strayed into narrative 
poetry by mistake." 

" Bells and Pomegranates " — a popular reprint of previous 
works, with very considerable additions — was published in eight 
parts, 1 84 1-6. Browning's " Dramatic Lyrics" (included in this 
series) is worthy of the highest praise. 

Sept. 12, 1846. Robert Browning married Elizabeth Barrett, 
herself a poet of rare genius. The circumstances attending this 
marriage. Their protracted residence in Italy. The influence 
of this marriage on the artistic and spiritual development of Mrs. 
Browning and her husband. Browning's alleged" free love tend- 
encies." 

61 



The works immediately following Browning's marriage are 
those on which his reputation will ultimately rest. They are 
"Men and Women," (1856); " Dramatis Personae," (1864); "The 
Ring and the Book," (1868). The story of this latter poem out- 
lined. Its . knowledge of human nature and stereoscopic veri- 
similitude. 

Seventeen-volumes have appeared since Browning's master- 
piece, of which the most significant are : — " Prince Hohenstiel- 
Schwangau," (1871); " Pacchiarotto," (1876); " La Saisiaz," (1878); 
" Dramatic Idyls," (1879-80); " Jocoseria," (1883); "Asolando," 
(1889). 

Apparatus for the study of Browning : Houghton & Mifflin's six 
volume edition ($10.00); the poet's own "Selections," from his 
works, (reprinted by T. Y. Crowell for 50 cents); Mrs. Orr's 
"Handbook to Robert Browning's Works"; Arthur Symons's 
"Introduction to Browning"; Alexander's "Introduction to 
Browning" ( published by Ginn & Co. — an especially significant 
work); Holland's "Stories from Browning"; Miss Hersey's 
"Christmas Eve and Easter Day"; "Pomegranates from an 
English Garden." 

The distinguishing characteristic of poetry, according to 
Browning himself, is, superior insight into man or nature. This 
characteristic he possessed to a remarkable degree, and we must 
regard him as : — 

1. Only second to Shakspere in psychologic insight. His analy- 
sis of character and motive is excessively minute, but singularly 
effective. See " My Last Duchess," " The Soliloquy of a Spanish 
Cloister," which evince rare dramatic faculty. 

2. He gives us occasional pictures of the natural world which 
evince great power. 

3. He possesses also rare lyrical capacity ; but his lyrics are 
properly called " dramatic lyrics," as they do not give expression 
to his own emotion. See his " Cavalier Tunes." 

4. He is a vigorous and acute thinker on all those themes which 
especially attract modern thought, and yet a poet of deep and 
tender feeling. 

5. He must be regarded as a great religious poet, although he 
refuses to be bound by the trammels of a rigid orthodoxy. See 
his " Saul," " Karshish," " Abt Vogler," " Rabbi ben Ezra." 

Over against these excellences, we must set the following 
defects : — 

1. His style is often (though by no means always) harsh and 
crabbed. 

63 



2. He is by no means an easy poet to understand ; his obscurity 
, ;eing caused by : (i), his frequent and vicious ellipses ; (2), his 
profundity of thought and wealth of knowledge ; (3), his incapac- 
ity for amplification ; (4), his peculiar method of telling a story 

>r developing a character, to which he owes much of his verisimil- 

tude. 

f His obscurity has been greatly over-rated ; but it must be con- 
ceded that he is not a great literary artist in the Tennysonian 
sense. Robert Browning is, like Wordsworth, the harbinger of a 
new school. He is to poetry what Richard Wagner is to music — 
in iconoclast, an innovator ; but he is coming to be regarded 
is a true seer. "The Poetry of the Future" will be immensely 
.ndebted to him, as is seen by his influence over Tennyson, 

j[cf. Tennyson's " Romney's Remorse," " By an Evolutionist," 
' Parnassus," etc,) and admitted by Mr. Howells. He never can 

: become a popular poet but some of us are immensely indebted to 

llim for inspiration — uplift — outlook. 

Consult on Browning (in addition to the books already named) : 
Miss Burt's "Browning's Women"; Miss Wall's " Sordello's 
Story"; Gosse's "Personalia" (of which the most significant por- 
tion is contained in "The Century " for December, 1881) ; Sharp's 
" Life of Browning " ; Stedman's "Victorian Poets"; "Obiter 
Dicta" ; Fotheringham's "Studies in the Poetry of Robert Brown- 
ing" ; Dowden's " Studies in Literature" ; John Morley's "Studies 
in Literature"; "The Edinburgh Review," Vol.120; "The 
North American Review," Vol. 66 (by Lowell) ; " The London 
Quarterly Review," Vol. 118 ; " The North British Review," Vols. 
34 and 49 ; "The Atlantic Monthly," Vol. 51, p. 243 ; " Littells's 
Living Age " for July 29, 1882 ; "The Galaxy," vol. 19 ; Mrs. Orr's 
"Browning's Life and Letters ;" Nettleship's " Essays on Brown- 
ing ;" the introduction to Grant White's Selections ; Edgar Faw- 
cett in " Lippincott's Magazine," vol. 46 ; Besant and Rice's 
"Golden Butterfly." 



65 



A GENERAL SURVEY OF AMERICAN LITERATURE. 



•\ Sydney Smith's sneering question "Who reads an American 
book ?" ("Edinburgh Review," 1818), not particularly pertinent 
vhen asked — very easily answered now. 

The Colonial Period, 1607-1765. Literature necessarily 
;canty. Activity, but not fertility, in the New England Colonies. 
Lauses of literary non-productiveness at the south : the plantation 
;ystem ; lack of common schools ; intolerance of toil ; aristocratic 
pretensions ; semi-tropical climate. Two world-famous authors : 
Roger Williams (1606-1649) "The Bloudy Tenent of Persecution;" 
Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758) "The Freedom of the Will." 
Less significant, yet noteworthy, names, are : John Winthrop, 
'Journal of Massachusetts Colony;" John Eliot "The Indian 
Bible; Increase Mather, "Remarkable Providences;" Cotton 
Vlather, " Magnalia Christi Americana;" Samuel Sewall, 
■ Diary;" John Woolman, "Journal." 

Other names emphasized by Prof. Tyler, are, Daniel Gookin, 
'Historical Collections;" William Wood, "New England's Pros- 
pect;" Nathaniel Ward, "The Simple Cobbler of Agawam;" John 
Afise, "The Churches' Quarrel Espoused;" Nathaniel Ames, 
'Astronomical Diary and Almanac;" Ebenezer Cook, (Md.) " lhe 
hot Weed Factor;" William Byrd, (Va.) "History of the Dividing 
„ine;" Cadwallader Colden, (N. Y.) " History of the Five Nations." 

The Revolutionary Period, 1765-1815. The literature of 
he period largely controversial and ephemeral. Really signifi- 
cant names those of Benjamin Franklin, "Poor Richard's 
\lmanac," "Autobiography;" Alexander Hamilton, "The Federa- 
ist;" Thomas Jefferson, " Declaration of Independence/' "Notes 
m Virginia." 

Less significant names : Thomas Paine, " Common Sense," 
' Rights of Man;" William Wirt, "The British Spy," "Life of 
Patrick Henry;" James Madison, " The Madison Papers;" Ben- 
amin Thomson, Count Rumford — scientist; Fisher Ames — "a 
razeed Burke;" Charles Brockden Brown, "Arthur Mervyn;" 
klexander Wilson— ornithologist. 

The National Period, 1815- . Demand for a distinctively 
kmerican literature. Conditions of existence in a new country 
vhich inherits a fully-formed language, a rich and varied litera- 
ture, unfavorable to originality. Reasons why a "distinctively 
kmerican" literature has been of slow growth : (1) ^English 
descent and training ; (2) Slow working of environment ; (3) Con- 
ditions unfavorable to literary growth ; (4) Lack of international 

67 



copyright — which was needed as a measure of protection to Ameri- 
can authors. Our literature compares not unfavorably, in divers- 
ity, strength and brilliancy, with that of England during the 
Victorian epoch. 

Rise of a school of American literature with Washington Irving, 
Three eminent names in our early literature : Irving, Cooper, 
Bryant. Irving the Father of American Literature, yet not dis- 
tinctively American. Cooper intensely American, though an 
imitator of Scott. Cordial recognition of their merits in England. 

English appreciation of Poe, Longfellow, Lowell, Walt Whitman, 
Joaquin Miller. Whittier too intensely American for them. See 
" Quarterly Review," for January, 1887, on American poets and 
poetry. 

Superiority of American tales and sketches. Foreign recogni- 
tion of Mrs. Stowe, Hawthorne, W. D. How ells, Henry James, Jr., 
George W. Cable, Frances Hodgson Burnett, and other recent 
novelists. English literary pilfering. 

Eminence of Emerson, Lowell, Holmes and Thoreau as essayists. 
Grimm's tribute to Emerson. 

American editions of Shakspere (White's and Furness's). Com- 
pliments incidentally paid to American scholarship. Reprints 
of American books. Halleck's treatise on International Law 
accepted English authority ; Wheaton's, the standard in China 
and Japan. Eminent students of language : Marsh, Haldeman, 
March, Child, Whitney. Longfellow's "Divina Commedia," 
Taylor's " Faust," Bryanfs " Iliad." 

Audubon, Wilson, Coues, Agassis, Hitchcock, Dana, Hunt, Gray, 
and Draper, world-famous scientists. Moses Stuart, William 
Ellery Channing and many others, equally famous in the religious 
sphere. 

Prescott, Motley, Parkman, Bancroft, Ticknor, Higginson and 
Fiske have won especial distinction in the domain of history. In 
oratory America especially excels, as is exemplified by Webster 
Clay and Calhoun, Everett, Sumner, Phillips and Curtis. 

A recent English survey cf the entire subject under discussion 
(" Pall Mall Gazette"). The reiterated sneers of the " Edinburgh 
Review." 

Consult on this > subject : Griswold's "Poets and Poetry of 
America;" Duyckinck's " Cyclopaedia of American Literature;" 
Lowell's " Fable for Critics;" Richardson's "American Literature;" 
Tyler's "History of American Literature;" Appleton's "Cyclo- 
paedia of American Biography;" Stedman and Hutchinson's 

69 



° Library of American Literature;" Tuckerman's appendix to 
"Shaw's English Literature;" Hawthorne and Lemmon's "Amer- 
ican Literature;" Allibone's "Dictionary of Authors;" Article 
on American Literature in Encyclopaedia Britannica, (Prof. 
Nichol); Article on American Literature in "North American 
Review," 1876, (E. P. Whipple); Hart's "Manual of American 
Literature;" Underwood's "Handbook of American Authors;" 
Beers's "Initial Studies in American Letters;" O. F. Adams's 
"Brief Handbook of American Authors;" Stedman's "Poets of 
America;" The "American Men of Letters" series of biographies; 
The English "Great Writers" series — on Longfellow, Emerson 
and Hawthorne; The Riverside Literature Series; Miss Hodgkin's 
" Nineteenth Century Authors." 



THE RISE OF AN AMERICAN SCHOOL OF POETRY : 
WILLIAM CULLEN BRYANT. 

Little poetry produced during our colonial period (1607-1765) ; 
and that little a poor imitation of English models. Names worth 
mentioning: George Sandys, of Va., "Translation of Ovid," 1621; 
Anne Bradstreet — her social position and distinguished descend- 
ants ; Michael Wigglesworth, "The Day of Doom." 

Our revolutionary period (1765-18 15) hardly more prolific in 
poetry. Noteworthy names are : Philip Freneau ; Francis Hop- 
kinson, "The Battle of the Kegs;" John Trumbull, "M'Fingal" — • 
an imitation of Butler's "Hudibras;" Joel Barlow, "Columbiad" 
and "Hasty Pudding;" President Dwight, "Conquest of Canaan" 
and "Greenfield Hill;" Phillis Wheatley. 

Rise of an American School of Poetry through the influence of 
Richard II. Dana, Sr., and William Cullen Bryant See " North 
American Review," March, 1819. 

Bryant born at Cummington, Mass, 1794. Father a physician 
and man of culture and refinement. See "A Life-Time." Spent 
about a year at Williams College. Studied law and admitted to 
practice. Went to New York, and ultimately became connected 
with " Evening Post," (1826.) Literature the pursuit of his leisure 
hours. Died, 1878. Claims to consideration : — 

1. First American to organize an effective revolt against the 
"conventional school " of English poetry. Hence " the Father of 
American Poetry." Cf. his " Embargo," written at 13, and his 
" Thanatopsis," written at 18. This marvelous change not wholly 
due to Wordsworth's influence. 

7i 



2. Bryant not only developed an original style, but a thoroughly 
good style. Almost unmatched among our poets for dignity and 
weight of expression. Reminds us occasionally of Milton. Excel- 
lence of his blank verse. See his " Noon." 

3. Sympathy with nature, and with nature as he saw her and not 
as he read about her in English books. See his " Blue Fringed 
Gentian," "Waterfowl," "Robert of Lincoln," " Planting of the 
Apple-tree." First to describe, in realistic terms, American sights 
and sounds. Influence on subsequent poets. 

Bryant must, however, be charged with the following defects: — 
1. He lacks fire and passion. See Lowell's " Fable for Critics." 

2. His poetry is little more than elevated and dignified prose. 

3. He lacked capacity for poetic growth ; or, at any rate, did not 
grow poetically. 

Consult : Parke Godwin's Biography ; Wilson's " Bryant and 
His Friends;" "Homes of American Authors" (Geo. Wm. Curtis); 
Pres. Hill's "William Cullen Bryant;" R. H. Stoddard's biograph- 
ical sketch, prefixed to Bryant's "Poems;" Symington's "William 
Cullen Bryant;" Alden's "Studies in Bryant;" "In Memory of 
William Cullen Bryant," (pub. by Evening Post). Autobiographic 
Poems : " O fairest of the rural maids" (1825); " The Future Life," 
(1837); "The Life that is," (1858); "October, 1866;" "A Life- 
Time." 

WHITTIER AND LONGFELLOW. 

John Greenleaf Whittier was born at Haverhill, Mass, 
1807. Son of a Quaker farmer, and enjoyed but scanty educational 
advantages. Became interested in the Anti-Slavery movement, 
and was editorially connected with various papers. His poetry 
was written for freedom rather than for fame. See his " Tent on 
the Beach." 

1 . Pre-eminently the poet of humanity. Threw his whole soul 
into his anti-slavery poems. 2. Poet of the feelings rather than 
the intellect. See " St. John de Matha," "The Sisters," " Gone." 

3. His reputation rests on his minor poems. Many of these are 
occasional, and likely to perish — e. g. " The Man of the Branded 
Hand." "Le Marais du Cygne," and even " Barbara Frietchie." 

4. In rapidly seizing an occasion and voicing the passion of his 
countrymen, he secured fire and enthusiasm, but by the frequent 
sacrifice of artistic finish. 5. Thoroughly imbued with the New 
England spirit. See "Skipper Ireson's Ride;" prelude to "Among 
the Hills;" " Snow Bound." 6. Poetry characterized by growing 
tenderness and sweetness which seems to some excessive, but is 

73 



in grateful contrast with the harshness and acerbity of his youth. 
See some passages in " The Tent on the Beach" and " The Eternal 
Goodness" — with which, however, compare " The Answer." 

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow was born at Portland, Me., 
Feb. 27, 1807. Family of some note. Elder Brewster and John 
Alden among his ancestors. Graduated at Bowdoin College, 1825. 
Classmate of Hawthorne. Professor of Modern Languages at 
Bowdoin, 1829-1835 ; Professor of Belles Lettres at Harvard, 1835 
-1854. Thenceforward, lived a life of literary leisure, achieving 
immense popularity at home and abroad. 

His principal works are : — 

"Outre-Mer, a Pilgrimage beyond the Sea," (1835.) 

"Hyperion, a Romance," (1839.) Prose poems evincing the 
influence of Richter. 

"The Voices of the Night," (1839.) Immensely and justly pop- 
ular. 

"Ballads and other Poems," (1841). Including the much 
maligned "Excelsior." 

"Evangeline," (1847), First long poem. An especial favorite. 
The outgrowth of fireside travel and imagination. 

"The Seaside and Fireside," (1849). Including "Resignation" 
and " Gaspar Becerra." 

" Tales of a Wayside Inn," (1863). Including " Birds of Killing- 
worth" and " Paul Revere's Ride.' 

"Translation of Dante, (1867). Unexampled for its fidelity and 
beauty. 

"Christus," (1851-1872). Perhaps Longfellow's masterpiece. 
See the estimates of George William Curtis and De Quincey. 

In estimating Longfellow, we must concede his lack of original- 
ity, See his "Hiawatha" and "The Building of the Ship." He 
was no plagiarist, but his was not a great creative mind. 

Though frequently dealing with American themes, he was the 
least American of all our poets. He possessed a largeness of view 
—a catholicity of spirit — which rendered his poetry widely accept- 
able. 

He possessed more artistic skill than any other American poet — 
perhaps more than any English poet — of our day. 

In passion, Longfellow is deficient ; though he excels in 
pathos. 

The most striking characteristic of his genius is that adjustment 
to the mental, moral and aesthetic sense of the intelligent middle 

75 



lcass which made him pre-eminently the poet of the home both 
here and in England. He lacks Shakspere's insight into man — 
Wordsworth's insight into nature ; but these very limitations of 
his genius have made him popular and will ensure the per- 
manence of his fame. 

Consult on Whittier : R. H. Stoddard in " Poets' Homes," 
Kennedy's "Life of Whittier;" Underwood's "Biography;" article 
in Scribner's Monthly, Aug. 1879 ( b Y R - H - Stoddard). Consult 
on Longfellow: Robertson's Life, in "Great Writers" series; 
Life and " Final Memorials," by his brother ; Miss Hodgdon's 
"Longfellow Leaflets;" Charles F.Johnson's " Three Americans 
and Three Englishmen;" Poe's "Literati;" "The Fortnightly 
Review," Vol. 39. Same article, " Living Age," Vol. 126 ; "Eclec- 
tic Mag.," Vol. 100. 

THE MINOR POETS OF THE EARLY SCHOOL. 

Richard H Dana — " The Buccaneer." 

Jones Very — mystic and saint. 

Henry Ware, Jr., — "To the Ursa Major." 

Joseph Rodman Drake — " American Flag," " Culprit Fay." 

Fitz Greene Halleck — "Marco Bozzaris," "Burns," "Alnwick 
Castle," " Woman." 

James G. Percival ; Alfred B. Street ; John Pierpont — local 
celebrities. 

N. P. Willis — " Sacred Melodies." Prose more attractive. 

Charles Sprague — "Shakspere Ode;" " Curiosity." 

Oliver Wendell Holmes — Humorous Poems. More delicate 
and spiritual work: "The Chambered Nautilus;" "Iris — her 
Book." Permanent reputation will rest on " The Autocrat Series." 

John G. Saxe — the American Hood. 

J. G. Holland — " Kathrina, " " Bitter Sweet." 

E. C. Stedman — " Osawatomie Brown," " Laura, My Darling." 

Richard H. Stoddard — excels in narrative poetry — e. g. " The 
King's Bell." 

John T. Trowbridge — dramatic power, humor, pathos, rhythmical 
capacity, suggestiveness. 

AMERICAN WOMEN EMINENT IN POETRY. 

Lydia Maria Sigourney — the American Hemans 6 
Frances Sargent Osgood. 
The Davidson Sisters. 
Alice and Phcebe Carey. 

77 



Hannah F. Gould. 

Celia Thaxter — Poems of the sea and poems for children. 
Helen Hunt Jackson— Personal interest — subtle and delicate 
charm. 

Julia C. R. Dorr — " Legend of the Organ Builder;" "Christus." 
The Goodale Sisters. 

Constance Fenimore Woolson — dramatic power of her "Two 
Women." 

AUTHORS OF SINGLE FAMOUS POEMS. 

Joseph Hopkinson (1798) " Hail Columbia." 

Clement C. Moore, "A Visit from St. Nicholas." 

John Pierpont, " Passing Away." 

Samuel Woodworth, "The Old Oaken Bucket." 

Francis Scott Key, " The Star Spangled Banner." 

John Howard Payne, "Home, Sweet Home." 

George P. Morris, "Woodman, Spare that Tree." 

S. F. Smith, " My Country, 'tis of Thee." 

Ray Palmer, " My Faith looks up to Thee." 

Julia Ward Howe, " The Battle Hymn of the Republic." 

JAMES RUSSELL LOWELL. 

Born at Cambridge, Mass., Feb. 22, 1819. Indentified with the 
literary aristocracy of New England. Graduated at Harvard in 
1838, and admitted to the bar in 1840. In 1841, he published 
"A Year's Life;" in 1844, "A Legend of Brittany. In 1848, he 
published another volume of poems, including "The Present 
Crisis;" "The Vision of Sir Launfal;" the first series of "The 
Biglow Papers" (in the Yankee dialect); and (anonymously) "A 
Fable for Critics" — both of which afford capital illustration of Mr. 
Lowell's humorous vein. 

In 1855, Mr. Lowell was appointed Professor of Belles Lettres 
at Harvard College ; and from 1857 to 1862 he was editor of the 
"Atlantic Monthly." At this time, he completed and published his 
second series of "The Biglow Papers." Editor of " North Amer- 
ican Review,"i863 — 1872. In 1869, Mr. Lowell published " Under 
the Willows" which illustrates his truthfulness to nature in 
describing an American spring ; contains touching verses comem- 
orative of the poet's wife ; and, in the Comemoration Ode, a mas- 
terly tribute to the memory of Abraham Lincoln. 

79 



Mr. Lowell's "Cathedral" (published in 1870) is his most preten- 
tious work. The cathedral which Mr. Lowell intends in that poem 
is not the cathedral at Chartres ; but the sphere in which man 
comes in contact with God and his fellow-men, or the world- 
temple into which man is introduced at birth. The poem is 
worthy of high praise ; but it is recondite and obscure — possibly 
a manufacture, rather than an inspiration. Its key-note is the line 
" Each age must worship its own thought of God." 

Upon the accession of Mr. Hayes to the presidency, Mr. Lowell 
was appointed Minister to Spain, (1877-1880); but was subsequently 
transferred to the Court of St. James, (1 880-1 885), where he became 
extremely popular. Died, Aug. 12, 1891. 

Mr. Lowell's prose writings evince rare critical acumen, and 
have been deservedly popular, but it is as a poet that he especially 
claims attention. He ranks first of all American poets in humor, 
pathos and sympathy with nature ; and only second to Emerson 
in psychologic insight — to Bryant, in dignity- — to Whittier, in fire 
and enthusiasm — to Longfellow in exquisite artistic finish. 

Unfortunately, however, Lowell is not always at his best, or any- 
where near it ; he did not grow poetically ; poetry was the recre- 
ation of his leisure hours — not the work of his life. Hence he 
evinced a capacity to be our greatest poet, rather than became 
our greatest poet. Clearly, our foremost " Man of Letters." 

Consult on Lowell : F. H. Underwood's " Biographical Sketch;" 
"Poet's Homes;" "The Literary World," June 27, 1885;" "The 
Review of Reviews," Oct. 1891; Wilkinson's "Free Lance." 



NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE. 

Amei lea's greatest writer of prose fiction. Comparison with 
Irving, Cooper and Poe. Hawthorne the founder of the psycho- 
logic school of fiction. Emphatically American — stories saturated 
with the old New England spirit. Perhaps the greatest genius 
America has yet produced. 

Hawthorne born, Salem, Mass., July 4, 1804. His ancestry. 
Childish fondness for Bunyan. Family removed to Raymond, Me. 
(Sebago Lake), 1818. At Bowdoin College (Brunswick, Me.), 1821 
-1825. Classmate of Cheever and Longfellow — friend of Franklin 
Pierce. "Fanshawe," his suppressed college-novel, published 
1828. Spent eleven years, 1825-1836 in close retirement at Salem. 
" Twice Told Tales" (1 vol.) published 1837. Weigher and gauger 

81 



in Boston Custom House, 1838-1840. At Brook Farm, 1840-1841. 
Married and residing at Concord, Mass., 1842-1846. v " Twice 
Told Tales," vol. 2, 1845 I " Mosses from an old Manse," 1846. 
Surveyor of Port of Salem, 1846-1849. " Scarlet Letter," 1850. 
Hawthorne's favorite theme, sin and retribution, which he views 
from a modern stand-point. Resided at Lenox, Mass., and again 
at Concord', 1850-1853. Period of greatest literary fecundity. 
"House of Seven Gables/' 1852; " Snow Image, etc." 185 1 ; "Blithe- 
dale Romance," 1852; " Wonder Book," 185 1; "Tanglewood Tales," 
1853; "True Stories," 1851; "Life of Franklin Pierce," 1852. 

Consul at Liverpool, 1853— 1857. Traveling in Europe till i860. 
" Marble Faun," (Eng. — " Transformation") published i860. Resi- 
dence at Concord, Mass. Later works : " Our Old Home," "The 
Dolliver Romance" (unfinished). Posthumous works : "Septimius 
Felton" (incomplete); "American, English and Italian Note 
Books," " Dr. Grimshaw's Secret" (?) Position of Hawthorne with 
reference to our civil war. Death at Plymouth, N. H., May 19, 
1864. 

Personal characteristics : excessively shy and moody ; seem- 
ingly heartless ; fastidious or indolent. 
Characteristics of his genius : — ■ 

1. A romancer, not a novelist. 

2. Possessed rare analytic power, but was attracted mainly by 
the abnormal and exceptional. A morbid anatomist of human 
character. 

3. Originality and independence. 

4. Weird and grotesque, but powerful, imagination. 

5. Intense passion, but scanty pathos. Rare humor in dealing 
with the ideal world. 

6. Style nearly perfect — seeming rather thought itself than the 
garb of thought. His excessive minuteness and disregard of 
dramatic propriety. 

Greatest creative genius of the age. Yet greater, had he been 
less morbid. Possibly seen at his best in his short sketches. In 
reality, two Hawthorne's. 

Consult on Hawthorne: Lathrop's "Study of Hawthorne;" 
Julius Hawthorne's " Nathaniel Hawthorne and his Wife;" Fields's 
"Yesterdays with Authors;" Poe's "Literati;" R. H. Hutton's 
"Essays in Literary Criticism;" Stedman's "Hawthorne;" Henry 
Giles's "Illustrations of Genius;" E. P. Whipple's "Character 
and Characteristic Men." 



83 



RALPH WALDO EMERSON. 



Born in Boston, Mass., in 1803. Graduated at Harvard College, 
in 1821. Educated for the Unitarian ministry. Retired to Con- 
cord, Mass., 1835. Phi Beta Kappa address on " Man Thinking," 
1837; Divinity School Address on "Literary Ethics," 1838. 
Editor of The Dial, 1840-1844. First vol. of essays, " The Conduct 
of Life," 1841. Tyndall's tribute to Emerson's " Nature." Most 
popular prose works : "English Traits," "Representative Men," 
"Society and Solitude." Obscurity of his style. His sceptical 
tendencies. Influence of his idealistic philosophy in counteracting 
the materialistic tendencies of our age. Personal character. His 
breadth and generosity illustrated by his " Parnassus." Emerson 
not a philosopher ; but a poet — perhaps the American poet. See 
" Christian Review," Vol. 26. His utter incapacity for accurate 
and severe reasoning. Both poetic thought and poetic diction 
essential to poetry. The leading thoughts in Emerson's 
philosophical system essentially poetic. 
They are : — 

1. That God is in all things, and all things in God. 

2. That each created existence is essential to every other created 
existence. 

3. That nothing which has once existed ever ceases to exist. 
Illustrate from " Each and All," " Wood Notes." 

Mr. Emerson's diction at first harsh and unmetrical ; but he sub- 
sequently made a vast improvement. Illustrate from "The 
Exile." 

His poetry not, as is alleged, incomprehensible. Illustrate from 
"Brahma" and "A Fable." 

Emerson excels in vivid and exact imagery, and in profound 
sympathy with the varying phrases of nature. Illustrate from 
"A Snow Storm," "The Adirondacks," "The Humble Bee," 
* May Day " " Rhodora," " The Apology." 

There is a vein of sadness in Emerson's poetry which commends 
it to human sympathy. See " The Day's Ration," " Terminus." 

Emerson not popular as a poet. Best known by his " Hymn 
at the Dedication of the Concord Monument " and " The Problem." 

Consult on Emerson : Holmes in the " American Men of Letters * 
series ; Cabot's " Memoir of Ralph Waldo Emerson;" " Emerson 
in Concord," by the poet's son ; Geo. W. Cooke's " Ralph Waldo 
Emerson;" John Morley's "Miscellanies," Vol. r; " Scribner's 
Monthly," Feb. 1879, Matthew Arnold's "Discourses in America;" 
Whipple's " Recollections of Eminent Men ;" " Poet's Homes." 

85 



THE HARBINGERS OF ANEW SCHOOL OF AMERICAN POETRY. 

Growing tendency to speak of the " early school " of American 
poetry. There is, as yet, no "later school;" but there is a cluster 
of poets who may be regarded as the harbingers of a new era. 

The early school characterized by a didrctic spirit and an eth- 
ical purpose. Among these poets with a pu pose, arose one whose 
purpose was mere aesthetic pleasure: — 

Edgar Allen Poe. In his poems imagination dominates ; we 
are introduced to an ideal world ; we find in him insubstantial 
thought redeemed by careful workmanship, and a wonderful mas- 
tery of rhythm and melody. Gosse's estimate. 

Walt Whitman substitutes for ethical or aesthetic purpose 
absolute fidelity to nature. He excels all other American poets 
in taking a poetical view of essentially common-place things ; is 
intensely American. Despite his coarseness, crudity and conceit, 
he may contribute something virile to American poetry. 

Joaquin Miller is a man for whom one may well cherish sov- 
ereign contempt ; but in his earlier poems there was a good deal 
of rude Homeric vigor. 

Bayard Taylor identified himself at first with the early school. 
His later manner is far more vigorous and passionate than theirs. 
See his " Bedouin Love Song" and " Mondamin." 

T. B. Aldrich made a similar transition, Most emphatically a 
disciple of Poe ; charms us by his grace and melody, but lacks 
that vigor and that unquestioning fidelity to nature which are likely 
to characterize the poet of the future. 

Sidney Lanier (the American Keats) might have been the 
founder of the new school had he lived. He had the melody and 
rhythmical capacity of Poe without his vagueness and insubstan- 
tiality ; Whitman's fidelity to nature without his coarseness and 
obscurity ; was sufficiently American, yet not offensively so ; and 
knew how to be religious without preaching. 

Emily Dickinson. Poems weird and crude ; but evincing 
marked originality, intense sympathy with nature, subtle pathos. 

James Whitcomb Riley's future is uncertain, and he has some 
points of resemblance to "the early school." But, though often 
devout, he never preaches ; and his fidelity to nature is marvel- 
ous. The new school of American poetry will not be a school of 
dialect poetry ; but it may well have some of the homely simplic- 
ity and directness that characterizes the best of Riley's work. 

Consult Poe's works in "The Canterbury Poets;" Gosse's "Has 
America produced a Poet?" (" The Forum," Oct., 1888.) 

87 



SIDNEY LANIER. 



Born, Macon, Ga., Feb., 3, 1842. Of Huguenot descent. Early 
ondness for music ; and rare subsequent attainment. Student 
nd teacher at Oglethorpe College. A private in the Confederate 
Lrmy, 1861 ; signal officer on a blockade-runner ; prisoner of war. 
thoroughly " reconstructed." See his " Tiger Lilies," Happy 
narried life. 

n Clerk, teacher, lawyer, 1865-73. Student and instructor at 
hns Hopkins, 1873-1881. Struggle with poverty and ill health. 

lis life a poem more exquisite than any that he wrote. 
His " Cantata" for the opening of the Philadelphia Exposition 

1876). Significance of his "Science of English Verse" (1879); 

' English Novel " (1881). His promise of eminence as a literary 
:ritic. His untimely death one of the severest losses ever sus- 
cained by American Literature. He might have been to "the 
New South" in literature what Henry W. Grady was in industry 
and politics. 

His poetry gave promise of unfulfilled greatness. Its leading 
:haracteristics are : — 

1 1. Love of Nature. Blending of the spirit of Chaucer and 
'vV ordsworth. 

2. Strong humanitarian instincts. 

3. Exquisite appreciation of the beautiful, and delicate, artistic 
;ouch. A Christian Keats. 

4. Rare nobility of thought and purpose, reminding one of 
Spenser. 

Consult : Dr. Ward's biographical sketch prefixed to " Poems 
of Sidney Lanier;" Pres. Gates in "Presbyterian Review," Oct. 
1887. 



ADDENDA. 

Since the death of Alfred Tennyson (which occurred Oct. 6, 
1892,) various articles and books illustrative of his life or works 
lave appeared, among which we may mention : the laureate's 
)\vn volume,"Death of Oenone, Akbar's Dream, etc.", "Review of 
Reviews " for Dec, 1892 ; " The Nineteenth Century " for Dec, 
1892, Jan., Feb. and March, 1893 ; Waugh's " Alfred, Lord Ten- 
nyson"; Eugene Parsons's "Tennyson's Life and Poetry and 
Mistakes about Tennyson "; Brother Azarias' " Phases of Thought 

89 



and Criticism"; Webb's ed. of " Aylmer's Field" : Macaulay's 
ed. of " Gareth and Lynette " and "The Holy Grail". 

Numerous books treating- of Robert Browning have also recently 
appeared. The most prominent are : Berdoe's " Browning Cyclo- 
paedia " and " Browning's Message to His Time " ; Oscar L. 
Trigg's " Browning and Whitman " ; F. Mary Wilson's " Brown- 
ing Primer ". 

Other books of reference which have appeared since this sylla- 
bus was electrotyped are as follows : On Chaucer, Prof. T. R 
Lounsbury's "Studies in Chaucer", and Macmillan's "Chaucer 
Primer"; on English Fiction , Henry Morley's "Early English 
Prose Romances " (Carisbrooke Library), F. Marion Crawford's 
"The Novel: What it is ", Joseph Jacobs's "George Eliot, etc."; 
on Cotton Mather, a monograph by Barrett Wendell in 
" The Makers of America " series ; on Hawthorne, Bridge's 
" Personal Recollections of Nathaniel Hawthorne " ; on Lowell, 
an article by Henry James in the Atlantic Monthly for Jan., 1892, 
and an article by Geo. Wm. Curtis in the New York Tribune for 
Feb. 23, 1892, (reprinted by Harper & Brothers); on Richard H. 
Dana, jr., and Herman Melville, an article in the North Ameri- 
can Review for Feb., 1892 ; on the Literary Lndependence of the 
United States, etc., Brander Matthews's "Americanisms and 
Briticisms " ; Higginson's " The New World and the New Book " ; 
on Whittier, Mrs. Claflin's "Personal Recollections" . 

See, also, Stopford Brooke's " Early English Literature ; " Miss 
Bates's " English Religious Drama " ; Ten Brink's " English 
Literature from Wiclif to the Renaissance " ; Prof. C. T. Win- 
chester's " Short Courses of Reading " — containing reading lists 
and references, in English literature, from Chaucer to our own day ; 
Edmond Scherer's " Essays in English Literature " ; Ryland's 
"Chronological Outlines of Eng. Lit."; Mrs. Oliphant's "Victorian 
Literature ". 

Attention should also be called to the very useful series of 
volumes illustrative of the Nature of Poetry, published by Ginn & 
Co., of Boston, and including Cook's "Art of Poetry " ; Corson's 
"Primer of English Verse" ; Sidney's "Defence of Poesy"; 
Jonson's "Timber "; Addison's "Paradise Lost"; Shelley's 
"Defense of Poetry"; Leigh Hunt's "What is Poetry". 

Note, also, the critical edition of Be'owulf by Harrison and 
Sharp (pub. by Ginn & Co.), and the paraphrases of the same 
poem by Garnett (Ginn & Co.), and Hall (D. C. Heath & Co.) 



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